Hanwul.org - 영어 문법

English Grammar

순 서 : 1, sentence 2, noun 3, pronoun 4, verb 5, preposition 6, adjective 7, adverb 8, conjunction

9, interjection 10, simple present tense 11, simple past tense 12, present perfect tense 13, past perfect tense

14, simple future tense 15, future perfect tense 16, modal auxiliaries 17, phrases 18, adding to sentences

19, the passive 20, the passive voice of modals 21, Verbals 22, gerunds(2) 23, infinitives 24, infinitives (2)

25, passive and past forms of gerunds 26, participles 27, parallel structure 28, noun clauses 29, noun clauses (2)

30, noun clauses (3) 31, adjective clauses 32, adjective clauses (2) 33, adjective clauses (3) 34, adverb cluses

35, adverb clauses (2) 36, adverb clauses (3) 37, conditional sentences 38, conditional sentences (2)

39, subject -verb agreement 40, invert the subject and verb 41, additions and responses 42, sentence puzzles.

영어가 어떻게 되나? 를 알려면 영어 문법을 공부해야 합니다.

문장(sentence)을 구성하는 요소는 단어(word)가 기본이며 문장의 뼈대인 명사(noun),동사(verb),형용사(adjective),부사(adverb)와-

대명사(pronoun),전치사(preposition),접속사(conjunction),감탄사(interjection)의 8품사로 구분 되는데 문장 속의 어순, 어형, 기능에 따라

품사가 달라질 수도 있습니다.

동사의 속성으로 명사, 형용사, 부사의 역할을 하는 부정사(infinitive), 명사역할을 하는 동명사(gerund),형용사 역할을 하는 분사

(participle)의 준동사(verbal)가 있습니다. 그리고 두 개 이상의 단어가 동사 명사 형용사 부사역할을 위해 함께하는 구(phrase), 주어와

동사를 가지고 문장의 일부(dependent clause), 또는 문장을 이룰 수 있는 형태로(independent clause) 명사, 형용사, 부사의 역할을 하는

절(clause)도 있습니다.

문장은 독립적인 단문(simple sentence), 두 문장이 등위 접속사로 연결된 중문(compound sentence), 종속 접속사로 연결된 복문

(complex sentence), 그리고 중문과 복문이 합해진 문장(compound and complex sentence)으로 구분됩니다.

문장의 기본구조는 주어(subject)와 술어(predicate)로 돼 있습니다.

우리가 어떤 것에 대해서 말하려고 하는 그것이 주어이며, 주어가 무엇을 하며 무엇과 같다는 설명이 술어입니다. 주어로는 명사나

대명사가 흔히 문장의 앞에 자리를 잡는데 주어는 한 문장 안에서 되풀이 하거나 전치사를 앞에 두어 모호하게 하거나 명령문 외에는 생략

해선 안됩니다.

의문문(question)에서는 동사가 먼저고 주어가 뒤에 오는데(V-S), yes/no question과 wh의 question word를 쓰는

information question, 그리고 tag question이 있습니다.

술어에서는 제일 중요한 단어가 동사(verb)이며 행동이나 상태를 나타내는데 따라 목적어(object)나 보어(complement)를 씁니다.

Subject-verb-object 혹은 Subject-linking verb-complement 순서입니다. 여기에 형용사와 부사, 구와 절의 수식어구가 붙게 되고 전치사와

접속사의 연결 어구 등이 구성요소로 되면 문장이 길어집니다. 동사는 시제(verb tense)에 따라 과거(past), 현재(present), 미래(future )형

이 있고 행동이 계속되는 진행형과 어느시점전에 행동이 끝난 완료형이 있으며 동사의 voice 따라 능동태( active),피동태( passive)

form이 달라집니다.

예외가 있지만, 동사의 쓰임에 따라 습관적으로 문장을 조립해 쓰는 5가지 형식이 있습니다.

1 형식은 주어/동사, 2 형식은 주어/동사/ 보어, 3 형식은 주어 /동사/ 목적어, 4 형식은 주어 /동사/ 간접목적어/직접목적어,

5 형식은 주어/동사/ 목적어/보어로 배열됩니다. 이 형식에 맞춰서 한국말로 생각하고 영어를 하면 시간이 오래걸릴 수있으니

참고 하고, 주어와 술어라는 구도로 영어를 구사하는 것이 바람직합니다.

1. Sentence

A sentence is a group of words with a subject and a verb that tells

a complete idea.

Excuse me. Can you repeat that, please?

I am sorry. I can’t hear you.

I don’t understand this word. Can you explain this to me?

How beautiful this church is!

Pick it up! (command), (It’s) Better late than never. (proverb)

Standard word order: (subject + verb + object or complement)

Intransitive verbs: (agree, arrive, come, go, happen, rise)

Birds fly. The baby cried.

Transitive verbs need objects. (build, cut, find, make, need, use)

She gave me a book. John likes ice cream.

Linking verbs need complements. (Be, appear, feel, seem, look)

This food tastes good. The weather became warm.

Command sentences usually have no written subject.

All sentences start a capital letter and end a punctuation:

(a period(.), a question mark(?), an exclamation point(!))

The subject and the verb of sentence must agree.

He wants the book. She has two pens.

All animals need water. They won’t go there.

present past

(Be, have, do )

I am have do was had did

You are have do were “ “

She, he, it is has does was “ “

We, you, they are have do were “ “

(I’m, you’re, she’s, it’s, He isn’t, they aren’t, I wasn’t, you weren’t)

Make a noun plural , a verb present- third person- singular:

Most words(noun or verb),add –s to the end

nurse--- nurses break---breaks

song --- songs work--- works

disease ---diseases see--- sees

End in- s, ss, sh, ch, and x, add-es:

bus--- buses catch ---catches

boss---bosses mix--- mixes

Fox--- foxes kiss--- kisses

End in a consonant + y, change the y to i, add -es:

baby---babies cry--- cries

city--- cities try--- tries

Toy--- toys (vowel + y) buy--- buys

End in-f, fe, change to v and add –es :

shelf---shelves

Yes/No questions (answer : Yes, he does. or No, he doesn’t), and

information questions (use question word: when, why, who, whom, which,..)

He lives here. Does he live here?

Where does he live?

Park lived there. Did Park live there?

Where did Park live?

Kim is living there. Is Kim living there?

Where is Kim living?

They have lived there. Have they lived there?

Where have they lived?

I can share the book with you. Can I share the book with you?

May / could I borrow your (thing)?

How do you spell (word)?

What does ( word) mean?

How do you say (Foreign word) in English?

2. Noun (명 사)

A noun is a word that names a person, place or thing.

Mr. Wang is a scientist. (subject, complement)

Mrs. Lee made her husband some tea. (objects)

John, a young Korean, lives the hotel room. (appositive, modifier)

Proper noun: names of pets, cities, rivers, countries, days, months and holidays.

It begins with a capital letter.

(Mary, Rover, Han River, Monday, May. Labor Day)

Common noun: living things (dog, tree, people), nonliving things (car, rock, book),

abstract things (advice, joy, truth)

Count nouns: regular plurals are ending –s (dogs, cows, bodies…)

Irregular plural forms

man --- men foot---feet

woman---women goose---geese

child--- children tooth--- teeth

Noncount nouns: no plural form ( mail, sugar, advice, rain….)

Noun phrases begin with a determiner and end with a noun.

He has no friends. Doesn’t he have any friends?

Emma ate a banana and an egg for the breakfast.

The old man considers me his real friend.

Article usage:

a (before a consonant sound): I ate a banana.

an (before a vowel sound): I ate an apple.

The (specific thing): I drove the car. I ate the eggs.

3. Pronoun (대명사)

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun.

Emma was late because she missed the bus.

John drives his car every day. I read the book. It was good.

The rocket soared into space. It soared into space.

Lee and Emma went to the party. They went to the party.

Personal pronoun

Singular plural

I my me mine we our us ours

You your you yours you your you yours

She her her hers

He his him his they their them theirs

It its it its

Demonstrative pronoun: This --- these

That --- those

Negative sentences

I do not go there. I can not make decisions.

I am not going there. I never tell a lie.

He doesn’t say any thing. He says nothing.

She isn’t here. Why isn’t she here?

How come she isn’t here?

Make negative with “not-any, or no” (avoid double negatives)

I have some problems.--I don’t have any problems. I have no problems.

I have some money. -- I don’t have any money. I have no money.

There was some food. —There wasn’t any food. There was no food.

4. Verb (동 사)

A verb is a word that tells action or being

Action verbs tell what the subject is doing.

I suggested the plan. The house was built in 1980.

We ought to study English. Are you being helped by someone?

State-of-being verbs tell about the subject.

(Be verb): She is a nurse. (noun)

You are intelligent.(adjective)

They were at the library. (prep. phrase)

(Linking verb): This food tastes good. She seemed cheerful.

My son became a fire fighter.

Simple Form Past Participle (-ed) (- ing)

Regular verbs: hope hoped hoped hoping

stop stopped stopped stopping

listen listened listened listening

Irregular verbs: find found found finding

swim swam swum swimming

be was, were been being

People working overtime will receive 50% extra pay.(modify people)

The woman chosen for the job has a lot of experience.(modify woman)

Be and Have are helping verbs.

I am playing. ( am-helping verb, playing-present participle.)

She has gone. ( has-helping verb, gone-past participle.)

Special helping verbs: modal +use simple present form of verb

Shall I tell you now? We should study later.

(will, can , may, must, would, could, might)

5. Preposition (전치사)

A preposition locates a noun in time, space or motion.

I came home by the car. She studied hard during class.

We went to the park in the morning. (Place comes before time).

Adverb phrases work like adverbs, locate different places.

She abandoned a car on the street. (place)

In the evening, my family went church. (time)

Adjective phrases come right after the noun they modify.

I serve God within me (modify god))

The mirror of the room is broken. (modify mirror)

Place:

in Korea on 3rd Street at the university

in New York on the first floor at 123 Antic Ave.

in Europe on a farm at the hotel.

Time:

in 2008 on Tuesday at ten o’clock

in March on 23rd at night

In the morning on Sunday, we have class from 9:30 to 12:00.

Prepositions in the imperative tense

1. If you ask for something, be polite and say “please;”

2. If you are angry with someone, listen to their side of the story;

3. Be kind to people who are less fortunate than you;

4. If you borrow something from someone, agree to return it promptly;

5. Work at something until you are good at it;

6. If you are afraid of something, explain it to a friend and listen;

7. If you are rude to someone, insist on apologizing;

8. Don’t worry about things you cannot control;

9. Don’t depend on other people to pay for your things;

10.Don’t be angry with someone who is trying to be nice to you.

6. Adjective (형용사)

An adjective is a word that describes a noun.

Modifies nouns

Young students like good music.

The old school has a messy, dirty, and depressing room.

Complements of subjects and objects

The smart dog is lucky. We painted the wall white.

These coffee cups are pretty. They called the wine excellent.

Making comparisons

My father is older than my mother.

The flower is the most beautiful thing in my house.

One,two syllable(add –er,–est): small - smaller - smallest

Three more syllable: wonderful - more wonderful - most wonderful

Base form Comparative Superlative

Regular big bigger biggest

angry angrier angriest

brave braver bravest

afraid more/less afraid most/least afraid

Change adjectives to adverbs

quick --- quickly calm --- calmly

lucky --- luckily safe --- safely

Instead of saying: Use adjective phrase before the noun:

a car that has four doors. a four-door car

a woman who is 30 years old. a 30-year-old woman

a house that has three bedrooms a three-bedroom house

7. Adverb (부 사)

An adverb describes a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

Adverbs tell “how” the action is done, the time and place.

They work hard. (how) You think quickly. (how)

He fixed the car yesterday. (time) We went there. (place)

Adverbs modify adjectives or another adverb.

I am extremely happy. The voice is terribly strange.

She swims well enough to be on a team. He walks very quickly.

Position of frequency words:

(seldom, hardly ever, rarely, sometimes, frequently, usually..)

After be: Their boss is always late.

Before main verb: Their boss always arrives late.

After first auxiliary: Their boss has never been late.

Base form Comparative Superlative

Regular dark darker darkest

fast faster fastest

high higher highest

angrily more/ less angrily most/ least angrily

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adjective, adverb (same)

Irregular bad, badly worse worst

good, well better best

little, little less least

Who and what are used as the subjects of questions

Who came to visit you? What went wrong?

Who wants to come with you? What made you angry?

Who(m) did you see there?

What does Emma look like?

8. Conjunction (접속사)

A conjunction connects equal grammatical structures.

Coordinating conjunctions put between words, phrases, or sentence.

Make compound subjects and objects.

The man and woman will buy food or clothes.

Make compound sentences.

and (in addition); I went and you stayed.

or (on or the other): Sit down or leave.

but (however) : He ate, but she didn’t eat.

so (result): Mary studied hard, so she knew it.

for (cause): They play together, for they are friends.

yet (nevertheless) They ran home, yet they were late.

Paired conjunction

Both my son and my daughter are here.

Not only my brother but also my sister is here.

Either the teacher or the students are here.

Neither my parents nor my sister is here.

Subordinating conjunctions put between clauses to make complex Sentences.

I went walking although it was cold.

Treat a human being as you would treat God

time (when, before, since,) cause (because, since, now that)

condition (if, unless, whether, only if) place (where, wherever,)

contrast ( even though, while, whereas) manner (as, in that,)

A Clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb

(a dependent clause-only part of a sentence.)

(an independent clause-could be a sentence.)

Noun clause: I know that Mrs.Joung speaks English.

Adjective clause: She checked the coat which I bought yesterday.

Adverb clause: Mr. Kim gave a speech where the workers were striking.

9. Interjection (감탄사)

An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses emotion.

It Add to a sentence to convoy emotion.

Fire! Ouch, that hurt!

Hey! Put that down! Oh no, I forgot the key!

What a beautiful flower!

Not related to any part of the sentence.

Tag question Answer expected

John was here, wasn’t he? Yes, he was.

You like tea, don’t you? Yes, I do.

You didn’t like the tea, did you? No, I didn’t.

Emma won’t be here, will she? No, she won’t.

Nobody called on the phone, did they? No, they didn’t.

-----------------------------------------------------------

Proverb A stitch in time saves nine.

Every cloud has a silver lining.

10. Simple Present tense

I/You/We/They come. I/You/We/They do not come.

He/She/It comes. He/She/It does not come.

It is used for general statements of fact.

The world is round.

Most animals kill only for food.

It is used for habitual or everyday activity.

The class begins at 9:30AM on Sunday.

We study English for two hours every week.

Existing states are not used as continuing forms.

He has only one dollar, but she needs a book right now.

Present progressive (be + ing)

I am coming now. I am not coming now.

He/She/It is coming now. He/She/It is not coming now

We/You/they are coming now. We/You/They are not coming now.

It expresses a continuing activity at the moment of speaking.

I am reading a book right now.

John and Emma are talking on the phone.

It is often used with always to express a repeated action.

She’s always smiling to everybody.

He’s always calling me “Goodman.”

Questions

Do you work? Yes, I do.

Does he speak? No, he doesn’t.

Where does she live? She lives --

What do you do on Saturday?

Is he working? Yes, he is.

Are you looking for an original thing?

When are you going to bed?

How is your car running?

Spelling of –ing and -ed forms

End in –e, drop the-e and add –ing or -ed

hope hoping hoped

date dating dated

smoke smoking smoked

End in a vowel and a consonant, make two consonants

stop stopping stopped

beg begging begged

1stsyllable stressed, just add the ending

listen listening listened

offer offering offered

End in two vowel and a consonant, just add the ending

rain raining rained

fool fooling fooled

End in two consonant, just add the ending

work working worked

start starting started

End in -y preceded by a vowel, keep the –y

enjoy enjoying enjoyed

pray praying prayed

-Y preceded by a consonant, change –y to-i, add –ed

study studying studied

try trying tried

Stative verbs(non-action verb) are not usually used progressive tense.

Be, like, hate, love, know, remember, suppose, think, understand,

hear, see, smell, taste, feel, notice, seem, appear, sound, look, have, want.

11. Simple past tense

I/You/We/They I/You/We/They

He/She/It lived. He/She/It did not live.

The activity or situation began and ended at a particular time in the past.

I bought a Hyundai car one month ago.

He walked to the park yesterday.

The action in the ‘when clause” happens earlier than simple past.

When I heard a big noise, I covered my ears.

She stood under a tree when it began to rain.

Past progressive tense

I/He/She/It was working. I/He/She/It was not working.

We/You/they were working. We/You/They were not working.

Past progressive began earlier than when the other action occurred.

I was walking down the street when it began to rain.

When the phone rang, I was reading a book.

It is sometimes used at the same time in the past.

While he was eating breakfast, his wife was making tea.

We were studying while they were drinking coffee.

Questions

Did I/you/we/they work? Yes, ( ) did.

he/she/it work? No, ( ) didn’t

How did she go? Why did he come?

Was I/he/she/ it working? Yes, ( ) was.

Were you/we/they working? No,( ) were not.

Who was speaking? What events were happening?

Where was she going? When were they coming?

12. Present perfect tense

I/You/ We/They have moved. I/You/We/They have not moved.

He/ She/ It has moved. He/She/It has not moved.

Something happened before now, at an unspecified time in the past.

I have read several articles about names.

I have already seen that movie.

He has never seen snow.

It expresses the repetition of an activity before now.

We have had two tests so far this semester.

She has flown on an airplane many times.

It also expresses a situation that began in the past and continues with

since +a particular time, for +a duration of time.

We have been here since nine o’clock.

I have known her for 5 years.

Present perfect progressive

I/You/We/They have been working. I/You/we/They have not been working.

He/She/It has been working. He/She/It has not been working.

It indicates the duration of an activity that began in the past and continues

to the present.

I have been sitting here since ten o’clock.

You have been studying for three hours.

It expresses a general activity in progress recently.

I have been thinking about changing my major.

All of the students have been studying hard.

Questions

Have I/you/we/they been working? Yes, I/you/we/they have.

Has he/she/it been working? No, he/she/it has not.

13. Past perfect tense

I/You/We/They I/You/We/They

He/She/It had gone. He/She/It had not gone.

An activity was completed before another activity or time in the past.

She had already eaten by the time he got home.

Until yesterday, I had not heard about it.

Time relationship is clear to use “before or after.”

John had already left when we got there. John left before we got there.

After he had left, I went to bed. After he left, I went to bed.

Past perfect progressive

I/You/We/ They I/ You/We/They

He/ She/ It had been leaving. He/ She/ It had not been leaving.

It emphasizes the process before another activity or time in the past.

John had been running for two hours when he crossed the finish line.

She came at five o’clock. I had been waiting for her since four-thirty.

It expresses repeated actions in the past before another event.

The phone had been ringing for two minutes before he answered it.

When the race started, it had been raining and the streets were wet.

Questions

Had I/you/we/they Yes, I/you/we/they

he/she/it arrived? he/she/it had.

Who had finished? Where had she traveled?

Had I/you/we/they Yes, I/you/we/they

he/she been studying? he/she had.

When had they been planning to visit us?

How long had we been waiting for him?

14. Simple Future tense

Will or Be going to is used to express a prediction or future time.

It will be sunny tomorrow. It is going to be sunny tomorrow.

Be careful! You will hurt yourself. You are going to hurt yourself.

Will+base verb

I/He/She/ It

We/You/ They will study. We will not study.

“Will” is used to express willingness.

It’s hot in here. I’ll turn on the air conditioner.

They’ll help us as soon as they see this. No, they won’t.

Be going to+ base verb

I am going to study. I am not going to study.

He/She/ It is ” He is ”

We/You/ They are ” We are ”

“Be going to” is used to express a prior plan.

She’s going to be an astronaut.

We’re going to study next Sunday.

Future progressive

I/ /He/She/It

We/You /They will be studying. They will not be studying.

An activity will be progressing at a future time.

I’ll be sitting in here at this same time tomorrow.

The progressive of be going to: be going to+be+- ing

I’m going to be studying at the library for a week.

Main clause (will or be going to)+ time clause(simple present tense is used)

We’ll see you when you arrive.

He’s going to be waiting until she answers him.

15. Future perfect tense

I/You/We/They I/You/we/they

She/He will have finished. She /He will not have finished.

An activity will be completed before another time or event in the future.

They’ll have served dinner when the snow begins.

By the next time he sees you, he’ll have graduated the college.

Future perfect progressive

I/You/We/They I/You/We/They

He/She will have been living. He/She will not have been living.

It emphasizes the duration of an activity in progress before the future.

By 2010 we’ll have been living here for twenty years.

She’ll have been sleeping for three hours by the time he gets home.

I’ll have been searching for the treasure for 10 years by the time I find it.

I’ll have searched for the treasure by the time I find it.

Question

Will she study tomorrow? Is he going to study tomorrow?

Who will help me? Who is going to speak?

What will she choose? Why is he going to come late?

Will she be working? When will he be sleeping?

Will you have traveled before I come? by 2009 Will you have arrived?

Where will you have traveled? When will you have arrived?

by 2011 Will you have been working?

How long will you have been working there?

I’ll have been working there for 25 years by next year.

16 . Modal Auxiliaries

Modal auxiliaries generally express a speaker’s attitudes, or moods.

Subject + can / could / had better / should / will / would

may / might / ought to / must / shall + base verb

Modals do not take a final s. and are followed by simple form of a verb.

She can go now. He must tell her. May I borrow your book?

Similar Expressions

Some meanings are similar with the modal auxiliaries.

(be able to is similar to can, be going to is similar to will)

Subject + be able to / be going to / be supposed to

be to / have to / have got to / used to + base verb

You are to report me. They were able to come here.

Polite requests:

May /Could / Can I borrow your pencil?

Yes, certainly / of course / sure / go ahead.

Would(Will) / Could(Can) you pass the rice?

Yes, I would be happy to/ glad to. Here you are.

Would you mind if I closed the window? No.

Would you mind closing the window? Not at all.

Necessity:

We must / have to / have got to take a placement test.

She has to / has got to take a placement test.

He doesn’t have to come to school on Saturday.

We must not smoke on campus. (prohibition)

Advisability:

You should /ought to / had better practice English more.

You had better / should pay the bill today.

You shouldn’t have gone home. You’d better not be late.

Expectation:

The bus is supposed to arrive at 5:00.

I am to be at the meeting. My boss ordered me to be there.

You were not supposed to leave early.

You are not to write it in pencil.

Habitual past:

I used to live in Korea when I was young.

My mother would sing a song when I was a child.

I am used to /am accustomed to hot weather.

I am used to getting up at 7:00. He didn’t used to study French.

Ability:

I can play the piano. She could run fast.

They were able to reach the top yesterday.

Yesterday I couldn’t / wasn’t able to concentrate.

Making suggestion:

Let’s go, shall we? Why don’t we go? You could ask him.

Preference:

I would rather go than stay here. I’d rather not tell you.

Similar expressions to modal

Be able to

I can fix that window.

I was able to help him.

I will be able to see him later.

You may be able to fix this window.

Kim should be able to lift this box.

They were not able to reach the top yesterday.

Be going to (gonna)

She will finish her work tomorrow.

She is going to finish her work.

He is going to watch a movie.

I am going to paint my bedroom. ( future )

I was not going to paint my bedroom. ( past )

Be supposed to

I should go to the meeting.

I am supposed to go to the meeting.

He will be supposed to leave early tomorrow.

You are supposed to stay here.

The class was not supposed to begin at 10.

Be to

I must be at the meeting.

I am to be at the meeting.

You are to study. ( have to)

She is not to come. (will)

You were to be here at 9:00 yesterday.

Use following verbs to make sentences

-----------------------------------------------

Eat stay study watch send read stop sleep come drink go

Have to (hafta)

Has to (hasta)

I must go to school.

I have to go home /church /downtown.

He has to buy bread and butter.

She will have to be home by eight.

You don’t have to worry about me.

I had to go to class yesterday.

Have got to (gotta)

We should protect human rights.

I have got to take a bath now.

I have got to work today.

You had to go to the senior center yesterday.

Used to (habitual past)

I used to live in Korea. / Lee used to have a Hundai.

Be used to (accustomed)

I’m used to hot weather. /She is not accustomed to cold weather.

Be about to

I’m about to go out. / make dinner. / call my wife.

Be ready to

I’m ready to go. / get marry. / start new business.

Be allowed to

Is he/ she allowed to leave early? No, he/ she isn’t.

Let’s(let us)

Let’s go to movie. / Let’s not make noisy.

Let me buy this. / pick up the book. / talk to her.

Did you go shopping? I went fishing/ dancing/ hiking/ swimming/ jogging.

Expressing degrees of certainty

Present time Present time negative

He is happy. (100%sure) He isn’t happy. (100%sure)

He must be happy.(95%) He couldn’t be/can’t be happy.(99%)

He may be/might be/could be happy.(50%) He must not be happy.(95%)

He may not be/might not be happy.(50%)

Past time negative

She was sick. (100%sure) She wasn’t sick. (100%sure)

She must have been sick.(95%) She couldn’t / can’t have been sick.(99%)

She may/might/could’ve been sick.(50%) She mustn’t have been sick.(95%)

She may/might not have been..(50%)

Future time

They will do well on the test.(100%sure)

They should do/ought do well on the test.(90% sure)

They may do/ might do/could do well on the test.(less than 50% sure)

17. Phrases

A phrase is two or more words together for some reason.

It does not contain a subject and a verb in combination.

1.명사구; A noun phrase is a noun and the words that go with it.

A car an apple

The boat sank. Many people came.

Those children found some money

The small cat is my favorite pet.

my ( determiner) pet ( noun )

2.동사구; verb phrases have the main verb, or auxiliaries + the

main verb. Each main verb has five forms.

Three of them can be used as a complete main verb.

the –s form (present tense) She writes

the past tense form He wrote

the simple form (present tense) They write

The other two forms cannot be used alone.

the –ing form writing

the participle form (-ed, en form) written

Ex;

progress-( simple) was/were, am/is/are, will be writing

(perfect) had been, has/have been,

will have been writing

perfect-had, has/ have, will have written

아래의 동명사, 부정사, 분사는 동사로 만듬으로 verbal 이라고 함.

3. 동명사구: Gerund phrases are formed from verbs plus ing.

Since a gerund acts as a noun, it can be a subject or an object.

As the subject of the sentence:

Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than that.

(as a noun)

As the direct object of the verb:

I appreciate your offering me this opportunity.

(as a noun)

As the subject complement:

His favorite skill has been speaking to the public.

(as a noun)

Go is followed by a gerund to express recreational activities.

Let’s go shopping. He went fishing yesterday.

4.부정사구; Infinitive phrases are used as nouns either as the subject or the object of the sentence,

although the phrases may be used as adverbs or adjectives.

To write an essay is difficult for Kim. (as a noun-subject)

To win the scholarship is Emma’s ambition. (as a noun-subject)

My secretary asked to leave early. (as a noun-object of the asked)

Mrs. Joung wanted to lead the discussion. (as a noun-object of wanted)

Mr. Park played to win the game. (as an adverb-modifies played)

I went to see a movie with my wife. (as an adverb-modifies went)

His plan to enter college succeeded. (as an adjective-modifies plan)

Emma is an actress to watch. (as an adjective-modifies actress)

5. 분사구; Participial phrases begin with the present (ing) or past participle (ed, t, en).

The participle phrases act as an adjective.

Hearing the siren, Lee drove his car to the side road. (modifies Lee)

Driven by the wind, the ship crashed on the rocks. (modifies ship)

Kept after school, Tony missed baseball practice. (modifies Tony)

Seeing the oncoming headlights, swerved to the right. (modifies John)

6.전치사구; Prepositional phrases are used as adjectives to modify nouns or pronouns or as adverbs

to modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

He went to the park.(adverbial phrase- modifies went)

Our dogs always sleep in the sun. (adverbial phrase-modifies sleep)

The house on the hill has a great view. (adjective phrase- modifies house)

John at the office should know my address. (adjective phrase-modifies John)

The hat on the table in my room is old.(adjective phrase-modifies hat, table)

7. 동격구; Appositive phrases are nouns or pronouns that give details

or identity another noun or pronoun.

My favorite book, How English Works, has accompanied me on my vacation.

Kay, my uncle, is a photographer.

.

18. Adding to sentences

Compounds : John and I like a dog and cat.(a compound subject and object)

Adjectives and adjective phrases :

The small cat in the snow looks old.

Many young people from the city ski on the highest hill.

Adverbs and adverb phrases :

Yesterday he gracefully jumped the hurdles in the park.

All football players really became exhausted after they played.

Sum up :

Sentence : The moon shone.

Compound subject : The moon and the stars shone.

Adjectives : The pale moon and the bright stars shone.

Adjective phrase : The pale moon and the bright stars with mist around them shone.

Adverb : The pale moon and the bright stars with mist around them shone brightly.

Adverb phrase : The pale moon and the bright stars with mist around them shone brightly all night long.

Adding two to make one :

Key liked his dog. The dog is white.

Key liked his white dog.

The cat chased the dog. The cat was little.

The little cat chased the dog.

Noun complements :

He built a house. The house was made of stone.

He built a stone house.

The cleaner works well. The cleaner was for a house.

The house cleaner works well.

Noun modifier :

The adjective modifier comes before the noun modifier.

I wore shorts. The shorts were new. The shorts were for basketball.

I wore new basketball shorts.

It is a quiet church library.--It is a church quiet library.(wrong)

Commas : Use a comma between modifiers only if you can put and .

It was a funny, interesting story. (a funny and interesting story.)

It was a funny golf story. (a funny and golf story.) (sounds crazy)

19. The passive

Active voice: its subject is doer of the action. -- Kay helped the boy.

Passive voice: its subject receives the action.- -The boy was helped by Kay.

Active Passive ( be+ past participle)

Simple present: Kay uses paper. Paper is used by kay.

Present progressive: Kay is using paper. Paper is being used by Kay.

Present perfect: Kay has used paper. Paper has been used by Kay.

Simple past: Kay used paper. Paper was used by Kay.

Past progressive: Kay was using paper. Paper was being used by Kay.

Past perfect: Kay had used paper. Paper had been used by kay.

Simple future: Kay will use paper. Paper will be used by kay.

Be going to: Kay is going to use paper. Paper is going to be used by K.

Future perfect: Kay will have used paper. Paper will have been used by K.

It is not possible to use intransitive verbs such as

appear, become, happen, occur, rain, stay, sleep, and seem in the passive.

The progressive forms of the future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect

are not used because of awkward sound.

Usually the passive is used without a by phrase when it is not known or not important.

Rice is grown in Korea. This church was built in 1950.

Either an indirect object or a direct object may become the subject of a passive sentence.

He gave me a pen. -- I was given a pen.

He gave a pen to me. -- A pen was given to me.

Question:

Is it sold in the United States? Where is it sold?

Was this building built by Korean? When was this building built?

20. The passive voice of modals and similar expressions

( modal + be + past participle)

Kay will be invited to the party.

The poster can be seen by everyone.

Children should be taught correctly.

The report may be finished on Friday.

The workers had better be paid this week.

This letter ought to be sent before noon.

Kay has to be told the truth.

We are supposed to be informed of the plan.

Your car could be repaired in one day.

The work might be given to us

--------------------------------------------

Past form(modal + Have been + past participle)

The parts should have been sent last week.

This church must have been built over 50 years ago.

Kay ought to have been informed of the change.

The house had better have been built a long time ago.

----------------------------------------------

Residents had to be paid the bill.

The computers were going to be sent to repair shop.

The house was supposed to be painted the next day.

Stative passive

Passive forms express an existing state rather than an action.

The past participle functions as an adjective. The action happened before .

The door is closed. The window is broken. (no “by phrase.)

Stative passive verbs are followed by a preposition other than by.

I am satisfied with his work. Kay is married to Emma.

Get may be followed by certain adjectives and past participles. (in spoken)

I’m getting hungry. He gets bored quickly. She got worried about you.

21. Verbals

A verb form that functions in a sentence as a noun or a modifier rather than as a verb.

There are three types of verbals in English.

* Gerunds end in –ing and function in sentences as nouns.

Banning guns is necessary. The police arrested him for speeding.

* Infinitives are preceded by the particle to plus verbs that function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.

Everybody wants to succeed. People must study to learn.

* Participles end in -ing (present)or –ed,-en, -d, -t, or –n(past) and function as adjectives

to modify nouns and pronouns.

The crying bird sat on the tree. The church, destroyed by fire, was repaired.

Gerunds

As direct objects:

We enjoy playing games. He gave up smoking.

(common verbs followed by gerunds )

admit quit (give up)

appreciate finish ( get through)

mind stop

avoid consider( think about)

postpone (put off) discuss(talk about)

delay mention

keep (keep on) suggest

22. Gerunds (2)

As subjects:

Walking is good exercise. Learning English makes me happy.

As subject complements:

My dog’s favorite activity is sleeping. Kim’s first love is swimming.

As objects of prepositions:

We talked about going to Korea for our vacation.

Thank you for helping me carry the packages.

We look forward to seeing you tomorrow.

He had a good reason for not going to class yesterday.

She stops him from coming here. He is interested in seeing him.

The gerund phrase functions

As the subject of the sentence:

Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than that.

As the direct object of the verb:

I appreciate your offering me this opportunity.

As the subject complement:

His favorite skill has been speaking to the public.

Go is followed by a gerund to express recreational activities.

Let’s go shopping. He went fishing yesterday.

go boating go camping go dancing go hiking

go hunting go running go skating go surfing

go sightseeing go swimming go jogging go sailing

23. Infinitives

To ride with him makes me happy. (subject)

We wanted to go. (direct object)

Her ambition is to fly. (subject compliment)

She doesn’t have power to resist. (adjective)

They have to study to learn. (adverb)

A) Some verbs are followed immediately by an infinitive.

( Verb + infinitive)

I want to succeed. He promised not to be here.

hope to promise to seem to

plan to agree to appear to

intend to offer to pretend to

decide to refuse to afford to

Adjectives followed by infinitives

I am sorry to hear the bad news. It is happy to ride with him.

glad to sad to ready to careful to

happy to upset to prepared to hesitant to

pleased to proud to anxious to reluctant to

content to ashamed to eager to afraid to

lucky to fortunate to willing to shocked to

Infinitive of purpose:

We came here in order to study English..

We came here to study English.

She went to the store for some bread.

She went to the store to buy some bread.

24. Infinitives (2)

B). Some verbs are followed by a (pro)noun and then an infinitive.

(verb+(pro)noun+ infinitive)

He asked her to stay. She told me to be here.

tell- to invite-to require-to

advise-to permit-to order-to

encourage-to allow-to force-to

remind-to warn-to teach-to

C). We can use either of A, B.

I want to leave early. I want you to leave early.

Ask help want

Expect need would like

The infinitive phrase functions

As an adjective modifying noun:

I have a pen to write in the class.

As the direct object of the verb:

He agreed to give me a chance.

They asked us to bring some food.

Infinitive with too and enough:

This box is very heavy, but I can lift it. (possible)

This box is too heavy for me to lift. (impossible)

I am strong enough to lift this box.

I have enough strength to lift this box.

25 . Passive and past forms of gerunds and infinitives

Gerund:

passive (being + past participle)

We appreciated being invited to your home.

Past (having + past participle)

I remember having met him a year ago.

Past-passive (having been+ past participle)

They enjoyed having been invited to Kay’s party.

Infinitive:

passive (to be+ past participle)

She is lucky to be awarded the prize.

Past (to have+ past participle)

The snow seems to have stopped.

Past-passive(to have been+ past participle)

He was glad to have been called into the meeting.

Verbs followed by gerunds or infinitives.

It began to snow. It began snowing.

Begin, continue, like, hate, start, love

Using after the verb need.

I need to go to the market. I need to borrow some money.

The car needs to be painted. My suit needs to be cleaned.

The car needs painting. My suit needs cleaning.

Using causative verbs

I made my friend wash my car.

I had my friend clean my windows.

I got my friend to carry my books. (infinitive)

Using after let, help

My brother let me drive his car.

My friend helped me wash my car.

26. Participles

The participial phrase consists of participle plus modifier(s) object(s)

and /or complements.

Removing his coat, Peter rushed to the river.

Having been a gymnast, Kay knew the importance of exercise.

Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close to the nouns or pronouns

they modify as possible.

Shaken, Mr. Lee walked away from the wrecked car.

Carrying a heavy box, she caught her foot on a step.

Comparing Gerund and Participles

I was irritated by Jose’s constant interrupting. ( gerund)

I was irritated by Jose, constantly interrupting. (participle)

Smiling, I hugged the panting dog. (participle)

Using verb of perception

I smell something burn. I smell something burning.

feel, hear, listen to, look at, notice, observe, see, watch

Special expressions followed by the ing form of verb

I have fun studying English.

have (fun, a good time, trouble, difficulty, a hard time) + -ing

I sat at my desk writing a letter.

sit, stand, lie(+expression of place) +-ing

Ms. Lee spends most of her time studying.

spend, waste +expression of time or money+-ing

When I got home, I found them watching TV.

find , catch +(pro)noun +-ing

27. Parallel Structure

The words before and after these conjunctions must have the

same grammatical form.

Nouns: I ate rice and bulgogi for lunch.

Verbs: He leaves at six and arrives at ten.

Adjectives: His song was neither long nor good.

Adverbs: Did he speak quietly or noisily?

Gerunds: Learning and practicing English are easy.

Infinitives: I like to read but not to play golf.

Use a comma to separate each part when a parallel structure

has more than two parts.

My chores are washing the dishes, cleaning the rooms, and

watering the garden.

I expect you to attend every class, to do all the assignments, and

to hand in homework on time.

Use so, for, and yet to join two independent clauses.

Use a comma before coordinating conjunctions.

It got hot, so we need to drink water.

The snow melted, for it was warm.

He took a nap, yet he is still tired.

so, for, and yet also have other meanings.

He is so smart. (adverb-so=very)

She hasn’t finished yet. (adverb)

We bought it for you. (preposition)

28. Noun clauses (명사절)

Independent clause is a complete sentence. It contains

the main subject and verb of a sentence. (main clause)

Dependent clause is not a complete sentence. It must

be connected to an independent clause.

Noun clauses act as nouns in a sentence.

A noun is used as a subject or an object.

His attitude was wrong. We noticed his attitude.

What he did was wrong We noticed what he did.

We heard about his behavior.

We heard about what he did.

Noun clauses are introduced in three ways.

By the word that or { } (omitted that)

By question words: when, where, why, how, who,

whom, what, which, whose.

By alternative words: whether, if

Noun clauses beginning with That

That the world is round is a fact. (subject)

With it:

It is a fact that the world is round.

(true, surprising, strange, obvious, apparent, too bad, unfortunate,

a shame, a pity)

We know (that) the world is round. (object)

(agree, believe, decide, expect, feel, guess, hope, know, learn,

notice, observe, prove, realize, suppose, teach)

We often omit that from a noun clause, especially when we speak.

I think that it’s raining. — I think it’s raining.

I hope that you don’t get wet. __ I hope you don’t get wet.

In this case we cannot omit the word that.

That prices are going up is clear.

When the introductory verb is in the present tense, the verb in the noun clause can be any tense.

I believe he’s here (now).

I believe he’ll be here (in a few minutes).

I believe he was here (a few minutes ago).

In conversation: to avoid repeating the that clause after verbs such as

think, believe, and hope.

Positive verb+so

Is Kay here today? I think so.(I think that Kay is here.) I believe so,

I guess so, I hope so.

Nagative verb+so

Has the wind stopped?

I don’t believe so. (I don’t believe that the wind has stopped.)

I don’t think so.

Positive verb+not

Are we having dinner soon. I’m afraid not (I want us to have dinner soon, but we are not going to.)

I guess not, I hope not.

29. noun clauses (2)

Noun clauses beginning with question words

Noun clauses may also begin with wh-words.

When a question is included within a statement, it loses question punctuation and question word order.

Main clause is question: Can you tell me where the post office is?

Main clause is a statement: I wonder where the post office is.

Direct question Indirect question

What are they doing? I don’t know what they are doing

Where does Kay live? I can’t remember where Kay lives.

Why did she say that? I couldn’t understand why she said that.

When do they arrive? Do you know when they arrive?

Whose book is that? I wonder whose book that is.

Who lives there? Don’t you know who lives there?

Who are those men? I don’t know who those men are.

What happened? Please tell me what happened

What did he say? What he said surprised me.

Don’t use that with a question word in an included clause.

Incorrect: Kay told me that how terrible his boss was.

A noun clause subject takes a singular verb.

What should we do? What we should do is obvious.

We often use indirect questions to ask politely for information.

Direct question: What time does the bus leave?

Indirect question: Can you tell me what time the bus leaves?

Noun clauses beginning with if or whether

When a yes/no question is changed to a noun clause, if or whether is used to introduce the clause.

Yes/no question main clause noun clause

Did Kay see you? Do you know if/ whether Kay saw you (or not)

Are they angry? I don’t know if/ whether they’re angry (or not)

Is she at home? I wonder if/ whether she’s at home (or not)

They do not follow question word order. Instead, they use statement word order

.

Correct: Do you know if this is the director’s office?

In correct: Do you know is this the director’s office?

We can also put or not immediately after whether, but not after if.

Correct: whether she comes or not is unimportant to me.

I don’t know whether or not he is here.

Incorrect: I don’t know if or not he is here.

Question words followed by infinitives

When, where, how, who, whom, whose, what, which, and whether

may be followed by an infinitive. (not why, if)

I don’t know what I should do. I don’t know what to do.

Kay told us where we could find it. Kay told us where to find it.

Please tell me how I can get to the bus station.

Please tell me how to get to the bus station.

Mrs. Lee can’t decide whether she should go or stay home.

Mrs. Lee can’t decide whether to go or (to) stay home.

30. Noun clauses (3)

Direct speech and reported speech

Direct speech Indirect speech

(Quoted speech) (Reported speech)

“I am happy.” She says that she is happy.

(No quotation marks)

“What is he doing?” She wants to know what he is doing.

(No question mark)

“When will they leave?” He knows when they will leave.

(Statement word order)

“I am leaving.” Kay said that he was leaving.

( Past tense cluster after past verb)

“Is she leaving?” He asked if she was leaving.

(lf /whether when no question word)

“Kay said, “I must leave.” Kay said that he had to leave.

(Third person pronouns)

“I am moving this week.” She said she was moving that week.

(That and those, not this and these)

“Go away!” He told me to go away.

(Command introduced by tell+ to)

“Please, please, help me.” She begged them to help her.

(No conversational words)

When reporting verb is simple present, present perfect, or future,

the noun clause verb is not changed.

He says “I watch TV every day.” He says he watches TV every day.

He has said “I watch TV every day.” He has said that he watches TV-.

He will say “I watch TV every day.” He will say that he watches TV_.

If the reporting verb is in the past (said ,told), the verb tense

changes when we report it.

Kay said, “I do all the work.” Kay said that he did all the work.

Kay said, “I’m doing all the work.” Kay said that he was doing all the work.

Kay said, “I did all the work.” Kay said that he had done all the work.

Kay said, ”I’ve done all the work.” Kay said that he had done all the work.

Kay said, “I’ve been doing all the work.” Kay said that he had been doing-.

Kay said, ”I’ll do all the work.” Kay said that he would do all the work.

Kay said, “I can do all the work.” Kay said that he could do all the work.

The subjunctive in noun clause

The sentences generally stress importance. Verb is used only simple form.

It does not have present, past, or future form; it is neither singular nor plural.

Negative; not+ simple form,

Passive; simple form of be+ past participle.

He demanded that we be on time.

It is vital that she have money to live alone.

She recommended that he not buy the house.

It is important that they be told the truth.

P) propose S) suggest (that it )

A) ask A) advise vital imperative

R) request I) insist essential necessary

R) recommend D) demand important

31. Adjective clauses

Adjective clauses (also called relative clauses) give us

information about a noun. They are introduced by relative pronouns.

I thanked the man. He helped me.

I thanked the man who helped me.

The man was Mr.Lee. I saw him.

The man that I saw was Mr.Lee.

He is the man. I told you about him.

He is the man about whom I told you.

He is the man who(m) I told you about.

I know the woman. Her car was stolen.

I know the woman whose car was stolen.

Functions of relative pronouns

Person things or concept

(subject) who which

that that

(object) who whom which

that that

[ ] [ ]omitted pronoun

(object of prep.) whom, which

[ ] [ ]omitted pronoun,

`prep. at end of clause

(possessive) whose whose

of which

Using subject pronouns:

The pencil is mine. It is on the table.

The pencil that is on the table is mine.

(The adjective clause modifies the noun pencil )

I have a friend who lives in Korea.

I have neighbors that are very noisy.

I live in a building which has very thin walls.

* A subject pronoun always has same form, but the verb

is changed.

That’s the man (woman) who works in my office.

Those are the people who work in my office.

Using object pronoun:

The movie was very good. I saw it last night.

The movie which I saw last night was very good.

(The relative pronoun comes before (pro)noun)

Kay is the man that/ who/ whom we met yesterday.

Where is the cup that Kay put on the table?

* We rarely use whom except in formal English.

The man who(m) I saw was Kay.

* An object pronoun is often omitted from an adjective clause.

The movie[ ]we saw last night was very good.

The man [ ]you saw was Kay.

Exercise(1)-Combine the two sentences. Use the second sentence.

as an adjective clause.

1. I saw the man. He closed the door.

I saw the man ( who /that) closed the door.

2. The girl is happy. She won the race.

3. The student is from China. He sits next to me.

4. The students are from Korea. They sit in the front row.

5. We are studying sentences. They contain adjective clauses.

6. I am using a sentence. It contains an adjective clause.

7. Algebra problems contain letters. They stand for unknown numbers.

8. The taxi driver was friendly. He took me to the airport.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

9. The book was good. I read it.

10. I liked the woman. I met her at the party last night.

11. I liked the composition. you wrote it.

12. The people were very nice. We visited them yesterday.

13. Where is the person? I should speak to him.

32. Adjective clauses (2)

Using object pronouns with prepositions:

He is the man. I told you about him.

He is the man about whom I told you.

He is the man who(m)/ that I told you about.

He is the man [ ] I told you about.

The house was huge. I was living in it last winter.

The house in which I was living[ ]last winter was huge.

The house that I was living in last winter was huge.

The house [ ] I was living in last winter was huge.

Using whose:

The student writes well. I read his letter.

The student whose letter I read writes well.

(whose is connected to a noun)

Kay has a painting. Its value is inestimable.

Kay has a painting whose value is inestimable.

We have an antique table. The top of it has jade inlay.

We have an antique table, the top of which has jade inlay.

* Do not confuse who is with shows possession

I know a man who’s from Korea.

I know a man whose family is in Korea.

Using where:

The house is very old. He lives there (in that house).

The house where he lives is very old.

*Where is used in an adjective clause to modify a place (city, country , room, building ,etc.)

*If where is not used, the preposition must be included.

The house in which he lives is very old.

The house which he lives in is very old.

The house that he lives in is very old

.

The house [ ] he lives in is very old.

Using when:

I’ll never forget the day. I met you then (on that day).

I’ll never forget the day when I met you.

*When is used in an adjective clause to modify a noun of time (year, month, time, century, etc.)

*A preposition is used preceding which. Otherwise, the preposition is omitted.

I’ll never forget the day on which I met you.

I'll never forget the day that I met you.

I’ll never forget the day [ ] I met you.

Using which to modify a whole sentence

Kay was late. That surprised me.

Kay was late, which surprised me.

The machine is out of order. That is too bad.

The machine is out of order, which is too bad.

Exercise (2)-Combine the two sentences, using the second sentence as an adjective clause.

1. I apologized to the woman. I spilled her coffee.

2. The man called police. His wallet was stolen.

3. I met the woman. Her husband is the president of the corporation.

4. The professor is excellent. I am taking her course.

5. I come from a country. Its history goes back thousands of years.

6. The people were nice. We visited their house.

7. I live in dormitory. Its residents come from many countries.

8. The city was beautiful. We spent our vacation there (in that city).

9. That is the restaurant. I will meet you there. ( at that restaurant).

10. The town is small. I grew up there (in that town).

11. Monday is the day. We will come then (on that day).

12. 9:30 is the time. My plane arrives then (at that time).

13. 1960 is the year. The revolution took place then (in that year).

14. The meeting was interesting. I went to it.

15. The picture was beautiful. She was looking at it.

33. Adjective clauses (3)

Punctuation of adjective clauses

1) Do not use commas if the adjective clause is necessary to

identify the noun it modifies (restrictive=essential).

The professor who teaches English is an excellent lecturer.

The man who(m) /that/[ ] I met teaches chemistry.

2) Use commas if the adjective clause is not necessary to identify

the noun it modifies (nonrestrictive=nonessential).

Professor Kay, who teaches English, is an excellent lecturer.

Mr. Lee, whom I met yesterday, teaches Hangul.

*Nonrestrictive adjective clauses are also used with quantity words.

(some of , many of, none of, both of, several of, a number of, )

In my class there are 10 students, most of whom are from Korea

She gave several reasons, only a few of which were valid.

discussed Kay, one of whose problems was the alcohol habit.

Changing an adjective clause to an adjective phrase

1) The subject pronoun and the be form of the verb is omitted.

The man who is talking to Kay is from Korea.

The man talking to Kay is from Korea.

The words that are underlined in black have errors.

The words underlined in black have errors

.

2) If there is no be form of a verb, omit the subject pronoun and

change the verb to its –ing form.

Hangul has an alphabet which consists of 24 letters.

Hangul has an alphabet consisting of 24 letters

.

Anyone who wants to come with us is well come.

Anyone wanting to come with us is well come.

When commas are necessary, the pronoun that may not be used.

* Kay and Emma, whom I met yesterday, explained their problems.

(Commas necessary; ”whom” can not be changed to “that”, and object pronouns cannot be omitted.)

* The students who/that did not come to class yesterday explained their absence to the teacher.

(No commas; “who” can be changed to “that”)

Exercise (3)-Add comma where necessary. Change the adjective clause pronoun to that if possible.

1. Only people who speak English should apply for the job.

2. Kay who speaks English applied for the job.

3. The rice which we had for dinner last night was very good.

4. I live in a town which is situated in a valley.

5. Mr. Lee whose son won the spelling contest is very proud of his son’s achievement.

Combine the two sentences. Use # as an adjective clause.

* The city has nine schools. # Two of them are junior collages.

- The city has nine schools, two of which are junior colleges.

6. I tried on five pairs of shoes. #I liked none of them.

7. The village has around 300 people. #The majority of them are farmers.

8. I have three brothers. # All of them live in Los Angeles.

Change the adjective clause to adjective phrase.

*Do you know the woman who is coming toward us?

-Do you know the woman coming toward us?

9. The people who are waiting for the bus in the rain are getting wet.

10. The children who attend that school receive a good education.

11. The fence which surrounds our house is made of wood.

12. They live in a house that was built in 1970.

13 We have an apartment which overlooks the park.

Change the adjective phases to adjective clauses.

* Kay, a young business man known for his success, comes here.

- Kay, who is a young business man who is known for his success,

comes here.

14. He read The Old Man and the Sea, a novel written by Hemingway.

15. Half of those arrested for car theft are under thirty years of age.

16. Any student not wanting to go on the trip should inform the office.

17. Corn was one of the agricultural products introduced to the European

settlers by the Indians . Some of the other products introduced by

the Indians were potatoes, peanuts, and tobacco.

34. Adverb clauses

When/While/As I was writing my essay, I had a good idea.

When/While/As introduces an adverb clause. It must be connected

to a main clause. We recognize clauses by their special clause markers.

When I was in Seoul, I saw several plays.

I saw several plays when I was in Seoul.

Because she was sleepy, she went to bed.

She went to bed because she was sleepy.

When an adverb clause comes at the beginning of a sentence, put

a comma after it. Do not use a comma when it comes at the end.

Summary list of words used to introduce adverb clauses

(subordinating conjunction

TIME : when, after, before, while, as, as soon as, once,

as/so long as, by the time, whenever, every time,

the first time, the last time, the next time. until, since,

CAUSE and EFFECT : because, as, since, now that, as/so long as,

inasmuch as, so (that) in order that

OPPOSITION : even though, although, though, whereas, while

CONDITION : if, whether or not, even if, only if, unless,

in case / in the event (that) providing / provided (that)

Adverb clauses of time

When I see her tomorrow, I will ask her. ( when =at that time)

When it began to rain, Kay stood under a tree

.

When I arrived, my son was talking on the phone.

After he graduates, he will get a job. ( present tense)

After she finished her course, she found a job.

I will leave before she comes.

The movie had begun before I arrived.

While I’m having dinner, I watch TV. (while/as =during that time)

As I was driving down the street, I saw Emma.

As soon as it stops raining, I will leave.

Once she got home, she fed the cat.

I will dance as long as the band plays. (during all that time)

I will never speak to him so long as I live.

By the time she comes, I will already have left.(one action finished)

By the time you arrived, I had finished my work

.

Whenever I go to park, I walk for a while. (whenever=every time)

Every time Emma sees people, she says hello.

The first time I drank coffee, I hated it.

The last time I went to Seoul, I slept at Lotte Hotel.

The next time we go to Korea, we are going to travel to Juju Island.

He stayed there until he finished his work.

She hasn’t seen him since he left yesterday. (present perfect tense)

I ate lunch. Afterwards, I took a walk. / I ate lunch. I took a walk afterwards.

Exercise: Adverb Clauses(1)

Complete the following

1. Tonight I will go to bed after I _____________ my home work.

2. I had known Kay since he _______________fifteen years old

.

3. Whenever Emma ___________ angry, her nose gets red.

4. We will have a big party when he____________home.

5. I had fried chicken the last time I ___________at that restaurant.

6. While I do my home work, I_____________ to music.

Make sentences from the given situations.

1. I haven’t gotten my paycheck yet.

I can’t pay my bill until__________________________________.

2. We have to wait for Kay.

We can’t leave until ___________________________________.

3. The taxi will get here in five minutes or so.

As soon as ____________________here, we can leave for the air port.

4. First, I have to graduate.

Once ___________________________, I can return home.

5. I got to the air port at 9:55. My plane left ten minutes later.

______________________airport just before _____________________left.

6. We were sitting down to eat. At the moment, someone knocked

on the door.

Just as ________________________________________________________

7. I got up to give my speech. Immediately before that, I got

butterflies in my stomach.

Just before _____________________________________________________

35. Adverb clauses(2)

Adverb clauses of cause and effect

Because I was sleepy, I went to bed.

I went to bed because I was sleepy.

As/ Since the weather is bad, you shouldn’t go out tonight.

Now that the semester is finished, I am going to rest a week.

As long as /So long as you’re not busy, could you help me?

Inasmuch as Monday is holiday, many schools will be closed.

The water is so hot (that) I can’t drink it.

Kay walked so quickly (that) I couldn’t keep up with him.

Emma has so many (few) friends/much (little)money that she----

It was such good coffee that I had another cup.

She worked quickly in order that she would finish on time.

Adverb clauses of opposition

Even though Kay apologized, Emma is still angry with him.

Although it was cold, I went church.

Though there was a snowstorm, the bus was on time.

Whereas Kay is rich, Emma is poor.

Kay is rich, while Emma is poor

(A comma is used even if the adverb clause comes second)

Kay has dark hair, Whereas his sister has light hair.

Changing adverb clause to phrases

Change only when the subject of the adverb clause and the subject of the main clause are the same.

After she (had) finished her home work, she went to bed.

After finishing her home work, she went to bed.

Before I came to the United States, I took some English classes.

Before coming to the United States, I took some English classes.

While I was walking down the street, I ran into an old friends.

Walking down the street, I ran into an old friend

.

Because he needed some money, Kay cashed a check

.

Needing some money, Kay cashed a check.

Because he was unable to afford a car, he bought a bicycle.

Being unable to afford a car, he bought a bicycle.

Unable to afford a car, he bought a bicycle.

Relationship words Transition preposition

Cause and effect ; therefore because if

Consequently due to

Opposition ; nevertheless , despite

However, on the other hand in spite of

It was hot. Therefore, I went swimming. ([;] may be used instead[,])

It was cold; However, I still went swimming.

I went swimming because of the hot weather.

I went swimming despite the cold weather.

36. Adverb clauses (3)

Adverb clauses of condition

If it rains, the streets get wet.

(Possible condition=it rains. Result= the streets get wet)

He’ll stay home If it’s cold tomorrow.

Whether or not it is cold tomorrow, I’ll go to class.

Whether it is cold or not tomorrow, I’ll go to class. (any condition)

Even if Kay studies hard, he won’t pass the exam.

Emma can go to school even if her car is broken.

(“Even if ”clauses are followed by unexpected results.)

The picnic will be cancelled only if it rains.

Only if it rains will the picnic be cancelled.

(When only if begins a sentence, the subject and verb of the main clause are inverted.

Unless I feel well, I won’t come here. (unless = if…not)

You can’t see the doctor unless you have an appointment.

I’ll be at school in case you (should) need to reach me.

In the event that you (should) need to reach me, I’ll be at school.

(lf by any chance this should happen)

In case of and in the event of(prepositions) have the same meaning.

In case of trouble, call the police.= In case(that)there is trouble, call-.

In the event of rain, the meeting will be cancelled.

Providing/Provided(that)no one has any questions, the meeting will

be adjourned. (providing that and provided that= if or only if)

You’d better hurry. Otherwise, you’ll be late. (If don’t hurry)

-giving example-

There are many interesting places to visit in Korea.

For example, / for instance, Gyeongju city and Jeju island.

(transitions) (e.g.[exempli gratia]=for example=such as)

Some words, such as see and hear, are verbs.

Words such as see and hear are verbs. (no[,]gives essential info.)

-continuing same idea-

Korea has long history. Moreover, / Furthermore, / In addition,

it has the religion of the cosmos that blossomed in Korea. (transitions)

New York city provided many cultural opportunities, In addition to / Besides

an art museum, it has a fine symphony orchestra. (preposition)

-Indicating cause and effect-(transition words)

I overslept and that is why I was late.

As a result of the rain, we canceled the picnic.

As a consequence of over sleeping, I was late.

It rained. For this reason, we canceled the game.

It was raining, thus they canceled the parade.

There are several causes of illness.

There are several reasons for Crime.

There are several reasons why people divorce. /people got divorced.

Exercise: Using the giving words, combine the following two ideas. (oral)

It may or may not rain. The party will be held inside/outside.

1. If- If it rains, the party will be held inside.

If it doesn’t rain, the party will be held outside.

2. whether or not 6. unless

3. even if 7. only if

4. in case 8. providing that

5. in the event that 9. provided that

37, Conditional sentences

Real(present/future time) (possible)

If I am happy, I like to sing.

If she is standing outside, I will tell her to come inside.

Unreal(present/future time) (impossible)

If I had enough money, I would buy a new car.

If he were a US citizen, he could vote in election.

Unreal (past time) (impossible)

If she had studied harder, she might have passed it.

If you had told me about the problem, I would have helped you.

Conditional clauses

Meaning if (or unless) clause Independent clause

Real and possible (Same tense in both)

Fact

Prediction present will/should/may/ might/can/ought to +simple form

Hypothetical

Speculation past would/should/might/could/ought to +simple form

were(to)

Hindsight had+participle would have/could have/ might have/

should have/ must have/ought to have +participle

Real conditions of fact

Factual conditions express an idea that is real and true.

(If= when or whenever)

If water freezes, it turns into ice.

If I don’t eat breakfast, I always get hungry during church.

People make choices if scarcity exists.

If he was in class, he definitely took notes.

She always helped if I asked her.

Unless he eats breakfast, he doesn’t function well at work.

Real conditions of prediction

We predict what will happen in the future if a certain condition occurs likely or possible.

If I have enough time tomorrow, I will write to my friends.

She will choose to go on a date if she value a good time.

If the weather is nice tomorrow, we will go to the park.

If I have two children (and it is possible that I will),I will love them

.

I will change jobs unless I get promoted.

Hypothetical conditions of speculation

Express an unreal condition in present or future. The past tense does not indicate past time.

If I had some free time, I would help you.( But I don’t have any free time , so I can’t, and won’t, help you!)

They would go to Korea if they knew how to speak Korean. (They don’t know how to speak Korean, so they won’t go to Korea.)

If I moved to Korea (but this isn’t very likely), I might live in Seoul.

Were is used as the form of the verb Be.

If the price were to go down, I’d buy that car.

If I were you, I’d leave. (But I’m not you.)

38. Conditional sentences (2)

Hypothetical conditions of hindsight

Express an unreal condition or contrary to fact situation in the past.

If he had had the opportunity, he would have gone to college.

( But he didn’t have the opportunity, and he didn’t go to college.)

If it hadn’t rained all morning, we would have gone out.

(But it did rain all morning, and we didn’t go out.)

If you had seen the movie, you would have enjoyed it.

(But you didn’t see the movie, so you didn’t have enjoyed.)

Using progressive verb forms

True: It is raining right now, so I will not go for a walk.

Conditional: If it were not raining right now, I would go for a walk.

True: I am not living in Korea. I am not working at a school.

Conditional: If I were living in Korea, I would be working at a school.

True: It was raining yesterday, so I did not go for a walk.

Conditional: If it had not been raining, I would have gone for a walk.

True: I was not living in Korea last year. I was not working at school.

Conditional: If I had been living in Korea last year, I would have been working at school.

Using “mixed time”

True: I did not eat lunch, so I am hungry now.

(past) (present)

Conditional: If I had eaten lunch, I would not be hungry now.

True: She is not a good student. She did not study for homework.

(present) (past)

Conditional: If she were a good student, she would have studied for the test.

Using could, might, and should

If I were a bird, I could fly home. (would be able to fly)

If I’d had enough money, I could have gone to Korea.

(would have been able to go)

If she were better student, she might get better grade.

(maybe she would get)

If you had told me about your problem, I might have been able to help you.

.(maybe I would have been)

If Kay should call, tell him I’ll be back around six.

( just in case)

If there should be another Korean war, we would be in jeopardy.

(Indicates more uncertainty or doubt than If there were.)

Omitting IF

If I were you = Were I you, I wouldn’t go there.

If I had known = Had I known, I would have told you.

If anyone should call = Should anyone call, please take a message.

Verb forms following wish (wish is followed by a noun clause.)

“true”sentence following “wish”

Future: He will not tell me. I wish (that) he would tell me.

She isn’t going to be church. I wish she were going to be church.

Kay can’t come tomorrow. I wish Kay could come tomorrow.

Present: You don’t know Spanish. I wish you knew Spanish.

It is raining right now. I wish it weren’t raining right now.

Emma can’t speak Korean. I wish Emma could speak Korean.

Past: Kay didn’t come. I wish Kay had come.

Emma couldn’t come. I wish Emma could have come.

Using as if/as though

(as if and as though are followed by a clause)

He is not a child. --- She talked to him as if he were a child.

She will be here. ---She spoke as if she wouldn’t be here.

He has met her. ----He acted as though he had never met her.

She did not take a shower.---She looked as if she had taken a shower.

39. Subject–Verb Agreement

Some words end in –s, but they are singular and take a singular verb.

Mathematics is my favorite subject.

The news is good.

Other examples are politics, physics, economics, electronics and measles.

When we use a gerund as the subject, it is always singular.

Growing flowers is his hobby.

Swimming is my favorite sports.

But if a subject has two gerunds, it is plural.

Swimming and biking are my favorite sports.

When a prepositional phrase comes between the subject and the verb,

be sure that the verb agrees with subject.

The key (to the doors) is in the drawer.

The keys (to the door) are in the drawer.

The value of her investments is dropping every day.

The directions for operating this machine are confusing.

Agreements with adjectival clauses

He loves his brothers, who are loveable.

He loves his brother, who is loveable.

The problems [that] the student encountered were very troubling.

The politician [whom]the journalists want to interview runs a business.

When we use expressions of quantity as the subject,

the verb agrees with the pronoun or noun that follows of.

Some of it is still good. Some of them are still good.

Half of the procedures were not changed.

40. Invert the subject and verb

To form a question with a helping verb

(be, have, can, could, will, would, [do] etc), the subject and helping verb are inverted.

Can she go to the movies?

Was he sick yesterday?

Did you tell me the truth?

Inverted subjects and verbs with question words

(who, what, when, where, why, how )

When the question word introduces a question, the subject and verb are inverted.

What are they? -- Question word V S ?

When can I leave?

Where are you going?

When the question word connects two clauses, the subject and verb that follows are not inverted.

I know what they are. -- S V question word S V

Inverted subjects and verbs with place expressions

When a place expression at the front of the sentence is necessary to complete the sentence,

the subject and verb that follows are inverted.

In the classroom were some old desks.

Place(necessary) V S

Here is the book that you lent me.

There are the keys that I thought I lost.

Beyond the mountains lies the town where you will live.

In the forest are many exotic birds.

When a place expression at the front of the sentence contains extra information

that is not needed to complete the sentence, the subject and verb that follow are not inverted.

In the classroom, I studied very hard.

Place(extra) S V

I walked for many hours in the forest.

Inverted subjects and verbs with negatives

(no, not, never, neither, nor, barely, hardly, only, rarely, scarcely, seldom)

When a negative expressions appears in front of subjects and verb, the subject and verb are inverted

Rarely were they so happy.

(negative expression) V S

Not once did I miss a question.

Never has Mr. Lee taken a vacation.

Rarely have I eaten better food.

Hardly ever does he take time off.

(This means that he almost never takes time off.)

Only once did the manager issue over time paychecks.

(This means that the manager almost never issued overtime paychecks.)

S-V / V-S pattern

He has no children, nor has she.

The neighbors haven’t seen your dog, nor have I.

Inverted subjects and verbs with comparisons

Kay spends more hours in the office than Emma does.

Kay spends more hours in the office than does Emma.

41. Additions and responses

Use “So, Too, Neither, and not either” to join

or add to statements of similarity.

Kay is a firefighter, and so is Emma.

Kay is a firefighter, and Emma is too.

Kay isn’t married, (and) neither is Emma.

Kay isn’t married, (and) Emma isn’t either.

Kay didn’t get married. Neither did Emma.

Kay didn’t get married. Emma didn’t either.

(short responses=rejoinders)

I have a twin sister.— So do I. or I do too.

I don’t have any brothers. — Neither do I. or I don’t either.

I think that’s a good idea.— Me too.

I’ve never heard it. --- Me neither.

These additions always use a form of be

or an auxiliary verb.

I’m a twin, and so is my brother.

Kay had worked in a gas station, and so had Emma.

I can’t dance, and neither can my wife.

Kay bought a Genesis, and so did his friend.

Emma owns a cat, and so does his sister.

Use “but” to join or add statements of contrast.

John lived in Chicago, but Kay didn’t.

John’s family didn’t speak Korean, but Kay’s did.

( to express disagreement with another speaker)

I wouldn’t like to have a twin. -- Oh, but I would.

I wouldn’t like to be a teacher. -- I would.

42. Sentence Puzzles

All Together

Writing good sentences will lead to a good writing style.

1. Use compound subjects and objects:

The man and woman went shopping.

They bought food and clothes.

2. Use compound predicate:

The movie pleased Kay and delighted Emma.

3. Use compound sentences:

The bandits were laughing, {and, but, for, yet, so}

the peasant was afraid.

4. Use adverb clauses:

{When, After, Because} the captain demanded payment,

all peasants paid.

5. Use more than one modifier for a noun:

The mean old tyrant laughed hysterically.

6. Use adjectives and adverbs phrase.

The bandit on horseback had a rifle in his hand.

Relative Clauses and Adverb Clauses

That kid is like mosquito. He frequently bugs me.

Relative clause: The kid who frequently bugs me is likely a mosquito.

Adverb clause: The kid is like a mosquito when he bugs me.

Using Adjectives to Combine Sentences

His mother gave Allan a punishment. The punishment was harsh

His mother gave Allan a harsh punishment.

Using Appositives to Combine Sentences

Mr. Ohno robbed a bank. He is a football player.

Mr. Ohno, a football player, robbed a bank.

Other adverbs (How) (Place) (Time)

Kay left in a hurry for the city at noon.